Supporting reading and literacy development for children with Down syndrome

Introduction

The reading achievements of children with Down syndrome have been steadily increasing during the last 20 years. Research studies have shown that learning to read and the activity of reading accelerates children’s development of memory skills and their acquisition of language knowledge. Many children with Down syndrome excel at reading and perform within the range of their typically developing peers at school in this skill area. Reading comprehension and learning to write should always be taught and developed alongside reading instruction. The beneficial effects of reading for development are significant for children of all reading and language abilities and reading can produce gains in life skills and independence.

This module focuses on how to teach children with Down syndrome to develop useful and independent literacy skills. However, the authors wish to stress that being involved in the literate community is the right of every child and does not depend on being able to read or write independently. Many of the benefits for knowledge and for language learning that come from being able to read can be gained from being read to every day. This should include the daily reading of story books and poems. It should also include the making of individual books and project books, which are read together. Enjoying stories and participating in story telling through acting, making picture representations of stories, and creating poems can be group or whole class activities. An excellent resource containing many ideas that can be used in any classroom is Literature for all. [TODO: references 1]

Principles for learning

Encourage a love of books

Children will be much better prepared to learn to read if they have had plenty of experience of enjoying books. They will know that books are full of exciting and fun ideas, pictures and stories. They will also have seen print, and if the person reading with them has drawn their attention to the words as they read, children will realise the reader is using the words on the page to tell the story. It is important to continue to read stories to children at home and at school, up to teenage years and beyond, especially to children who cannot read for pleasure by themselves. Unfortunately when children are delayed, they may be read to less than other children their age when they could benefit from being read to more, with support for their enjoyment of the text.

Language and literacy teaching: uneven ability profiles and a wide range of ability

Children with Down syndrome learn to read in the same way as other children and the same teaching approaches are successful. [TODO: references 2],[TODO: 3],[TODO: 4] They proceed through the same stages as other children in first establishing a sight vocabulary (logographic reading) and then being able to use phonic knowledge to spell and to decode words (alphabetic reading) but they rely on logographic strategies to read successfully for longer (that is at higher reading levels) than other children. However, their language knowledge will be less than most other children when they begin to learn to read; their ability to write and to plan and order their ideas will also be delayed. In other words, the range of skills and abilities that are needed to become a reader and writer will be much more varied in children with Down syndrome than they are in most other children. Children with Down syndrome may have a very uneven reading profile, with word reading ability a strength, but the use of phonics more difficult to master and language knowledge more limited than most other children with the same word reading abilities.

While proceeding through the same steps as all other children as they learn to read words, to decode and to spell, to read with comprehension and to write, children with Down syndrome may need each step broken down into smaller steps, with more practice and support for learning at each stage, than many other children.

The large number of variables that affect the teaching of children with Down syndrome include their language comprehension, age, hearing loss, speech skills, phonological awareness, reading skills, writing skills, handwriting skills, spelling skills, memory skills, conversation and communication skills. Their opportunities for enjoyment of fiction, non-fiction, poetry, drama, support for learning at home, interests, leisure activities, as well as their independence and approach to working and learning with a variety of media, including the computer, and their social and academic confidence also affect their teaching and learning.

Some children will follow a course of development similar to most other children in school, although they may require extra focus on language comprehension and sequencing of ideas. Some may be able to read, comprehend and spell (with magnetic letters or the computer), but be unable to speak clearly enough to be understood or have considerable difficulty learning to write by hand. Others may speak, read and spell well, but have difficulties extracting or producing the main points or ideas in their reading, writing or spoken language. The characteristics of children’s individual profiles enable teachers and parents to design activities to promote their development in all areas of functioning. They should value and use any literacy skills that children have developed and recognise that they can be used to promote the development of their speech, language, communication, cognition, behaviour and achievements across the curriculum.

For teaching reading and writing at any age

Activities at each child’s comprehension level

When introducing reading instruction to children with Down syndrome, the links between reading and spoken language knowledge need to be considered at all stages. Children can only read with understanding if they already know and understand the words, the grammar and the sentence structures used in the text. Therefore it is important to introduce reading activities at each child’s language comprehension level. Children with Down syndrome will almost always be delayed in language comprehension compared with other children of the same age and it is important to begin with vocabulary that they understand and with short simple sentence structures.

As children with Down syndrome progress and begin to read simple text with confidence, using language that they already know, then reading is a powerful tool to use to teach new vocabulary and grammar.

Speech and language therapy advice

The advice of a speech and language therapist is valuable when planning literacy activities as the therapist can tell you the level of language comprehension that a child has reached and advise on appropriate vocabulary and sentence structures to ensure the child can read the material with understanding. Children’s speech and language therapy goals can also be included in literacy work. However, many parents and teachers will be working without the support of a speech and language therapist and it is possible to follow a very simple rule to be sure that the language level of literacy work is appropriate.

Expand the child’s speech to create written sentences

Listen to the child and once they can communicate, take the child’s own words and make the shortest correct sentence for them. For example, if the child says ‘’sand’’ or ‘’play sand’’ when asked ‘’What did you do today?’’ write ‘’I played in the sand’’. The reader will notice that this is the way we help children develop their spoken language, it is an example of expansion - the term used when we speak to young children and expand their one and two word utterances in this way. If this simple rule is followed, the language used in literacy activities will be at the level of the child’s language comprehension and it will help the child to learn the grammar of and to say longer sentences. If vocabulary and grammar checklists are being used for the child, they will provide a detailed guide to appropriate words and sentences for reading for the child.

The importance of active involvement of the child

If a child is going to enjoy learning to read and reading activities are going to help speech and language development, the child must be actively involved in the whole activity, not just passively reading or copying work prepared for him or her by a classroom assistant. This is not always easy to achieve and clearly younger children may need more help to decide on words and ideas to record than older children, but it is a very important principle.

The children should be encouraged to choose what they want to record by discussing the activity with them. Use flashcards and encourage the child to choose the key words and then to build the sentence, or build the sentence on the computer first, even if you then write it out for the child to copy. Active thinking and engagement in the task is necessary for learning.

Resources

Children of all ages and ability will need a variety of resources for teaching and learning. Some resources can be bought although many are likely to be created at school and home. These will include:

###### See also:

Teaching methods

Children with Down syndrome learn to read in the same way as all other children but they may need smaller steps, more practice and more structured guidance to achieve success. [TODO: references 5] Teaching methods (input - e.g. spoken and visually supported) and pupil response methods (output - e.g. writing, flashcards, computer) that provide structure and guidance, with graded levels of support, will promote successful learning for all levels of work and children of all ages. Methods will include:

! Using a ‘cloze’ task for a pupil aged 6 years

Figure 1. Using a ‘cloze’ task for a pupil aged 6 years

Remember that learning from listening only is difficult for children with Down syndrome and that their strength is in visual learning.

Early reading success will be achieved by ‘look and say’ methods and games described below to teach a sight vocabulary.

Hearing loss

The incidence of mild to moderate hearing loss in children with Down syndrome is high and remembering some simple guidelines can help to compensate for their difficulties.

Many children may only have a small amount of hearing loss, although hearing levels can fluctuate and vary, but even a small amount of hearing loss affects listening in the classroom and can affect behaviour, performance and language learning.

Reading and phonic work requires good auditory discrimination. Therefore, for all children with Down syndrome it is advisable to take account of possible hearing difficulties at all times.

Teaching words and early reading skills

The rest of this module provides teaching strategies and ideas for the teaching of reading under four main headings, teaching word reading, building sentences and grammar, teaching phonics and teaching reading and writing with comprehension. Each of these topics is relevant for children at all ages and stages of reading and writing.

Why learn whole words?

Children with Down syndrome can learn words by sight before they are able to recognise, learn or apply the rules of letter sounds, phonemes and graphemes. For them, and for many other children, whole word learning is a strength and will give them early reading success.

How to choose words and teach them

The choice of words for any child will depend on the stage the child has reached in learning language, the child’s age, cultural and family background, the child’s interests and things they likes to communicate about, and the curriculum the child is learning from. This section describes recommendations for beginning to teach reading using whole words, how to extend vocabulary and how to encourage reading for pupils of all ages, levels of ability and rates of progress. It also stresses the importance of schools and families working together.

The early stages of learning to read are described below for young children, aged approximately 2 to 5 years.

For older children commencing reading at school, aged 4 to 6 years, some of the early stages can be omitted, depending upon each child’s language comprehension and experience of learning. Select words for reading based on the child’s vocabulary knowledge, vocabulary in school that links with school life (school vocabulary, routines, reading scheme vocabulary) as well as home life (family names, friends, routines and interests).

For children beginning reading aged 7 years and over, it is even more important that the words and materials selected and style of interaction used with the child is age appropriate. The stages and principles are similar for beginner readers of any age.

Begin with words that children understand

Reading activities can be introduced when a child understands 50 to 100 spoken words and can match and select pictures, that is, play a picture lotto game and demonstrate comprehension of spoken words. The same game will be used to teach sight words.

Children who have 50 to 100 single words in their expressive vocabularies and are developing two word comprehension should learn to read words that they understand and that can be used to teach them how to link words and ideas together. These are likely to be very young children with Down syndrome (aged 30 to 42 months) but some children will be school age when they reach a 100 word vocabulary stage and a two-word comprehension level. Words for reading can be chosen from their own vocabulary comprehension list, assessed by using word lists provided in the DSE Vocabulary Checklists DSra-01-01, DSra-01-02, DSra-01-03.

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Figure 2. Word matching using flashcards

The DSE Language Cards (illustrated in [Figure 2] and [Figure 3]) can also be used and provide pictures to make the task more interesting. Matching words to pictures enables children to demonstrate that they can read them with understanding as some of the successful readers will not yet be able say the words, although they may sign some of them.

Photograph toys, objects, people and activities that are important in children’s daily routines to make individual materials. Introduce reading using matching, selecting and naming games, described below. Begin with picture matching and when the child can match and select pictures proceed to word matching (word to word without the picture) and to matching the word to the picture.

Introduce simple phrases and sentences that you want your child to generate in speech as early as possible during your teaching activities, for example, ‘’Look at Mummy/Daddy/Granny’‘,’‘Mummy/Daddy/the cat/is sleeping/eating/washing’‘,’‘A cup/bed/shoe’’. Make simple books with short sentences, using the child’s sight vocabulary.

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Figure 3. Word and picture matching for reading comprehension using flashcards and picture cards

Remember to use the small words of speech, e.g., ‘’the’‘,’‘at’‘,’‘in’‘,’‘is’‘,’‘his/her’’ and ‘’she/he’’ in sentences. (These are the closed class grammar or function words that the children find difficult to master.)

Remember that all children progress at different rates and that all reading is valuable and an achievement to celebrate. The range of reading vocabulary learned by children with Down syndrome at the age of 4 years may vary between 1 or 2 words up to 400 words or even more.

Make books (photo album or scrap book) with words and pictures. Use these to teach words in categories, for example, the rooms of a house, animal words, garden words, transport words and action words (verbs). Use the children’s interests as a guide.

Illustrated examples of these types of personalised materials can be found in Including All by Jane Beadman. [TODO: references 6]

In the USA, materials to teach reading and language to young preschool children at home have been developed by the parents of a child with Down syndrome, Sue and Jo Kotlinski. [TODO: references 7] These Love and Learning materials include video and audio tapes and books and they have received positive reviews from knowledgeable parents and professionals in the USA.[TODO: 8],[TODO: 9]

How to teach matching, selecting and naming to children at any age or stage

Matching single words:

###### Matching, selecting and naming are steps in early word learning

  • Children will be able to match written words before being able to select them
  • Children will be able to select written words before being able to say them
  • Children learn to read words faster if words are not attached to pictures
  • Word to picture games should be a separate comprehension activity

Selecting: learning to associate the name with the word

Naming

! Days of the week word-cards

###### Figure 4. Days of the week word-cards

Extending reading vocabulary

Vocabulary for language development

When children have begun to learn to read, new words can be introduced into their reading vocabulary that teach new word meanings, as well as continuing to learn to read words that are familiar to them. Different types of words should be introduced, to prevent a noun based vocabulary from developing to the exclusion of other words. Other types of words are needed to develop language skills, to speak in sentences and to build sentences. The vocabulary lists in the DSE Vocabulary Checklists DSra-01-01, DSra-01-02, DSra-01-03] offer guidance for choosing reading vocabulary, including vocabulary that will be important in early primary school years. New vocabulary should be read in sentences as soon as possible (see below).

Vocabulary for school

In school, choose topic words, maths words, names of key staff and their roles, days of the week ( [Figure 4]) or words chosen from the curriculum, as well as the words of everyday language and the core vocabulary from children’s school literacy schemes.

Common, high frequency words

As children’s skills develop they will need to learn words that are common in written and spoken English. Many of these words can be taught as words or flashcards with matching games, or other teaching activities that offer frequent repetition.

High frequency words (the, here, etc.) may be better learned as part of a sentence, as well as an individual word, as on their own they may have little meaning. ( [Figure 5 ]and [Figure 6]). For this reason, teaching of high frequency words should be more carefully considered than teaching sight words for children who do not have language delays. Many children find learning function words (prepositions, pronouns, auxiliaries) difficult at first. Content words (nouns, verbs and adjectives), where meaning can be illustrated with a picture, symbol or more visual representation are likely to be learned more quickly.

! High frequency words practised daily in school, for a child aged 6 years, kept with the child in the classroom

Figure 5. High frequency words practised daily in school, for a child aged 6 years, kept with the child in the classroom.

! Selecting words by colouring over them (pupil aged 6 years)

Figure 6. Selecting words by colouring over them (pupil aged 6 years)

Differentiation and vocabulary learning

! Extending vocabulary (child aged 6 years)

! Extending vocabulary (child aged 6 years)

Figure 7. Extending vocabulary (child aged 6 years)

Work is likely to be differentiated (simplified) for children with Down syndrome of all ages, to varying extents. Words can be chosen from across the curriculum to extend vocabulary knowledge and enable children to share in learning and understanding with their peers ( [Figure 7]).

Schools and parents should work together

Parents can be included in planning for schemes of work so that vocabulary can be chosen with the children’s interests and life experience in mind, and can also be reinforced by parents at home. For example, parents could contribute to the choice of texts that will be used as stories or for literacy teaching texts, or topic work, or maths words.

Words that are part of a core vocabulary from a reading scheme can be taught to children at school and practised at home. Sharing in the whole class reading activities and schemes, with reinforcement throughout the school day of the characters and stories in the books, is usually motivating for all children in the early stages of reading.

Visually supported reading using pictures, symbols and objects

Most children with Down syndrome are able to learn to read using ordinary text from the beginning and the authors actively discourage the use of symbol systems to teach reading unless a child is making no progress with reading print.

Picture symbols are all around us in the environment and they can enhance learning and support our understanding in many ways but using symbol systems as an aid to reading words and sentences may be confusing to the child and introduces another symbolic system they do not need.

However, for children who practice often but still seem to find it difficult to select or remember words, picture symbols (such as Makaton symbols [TODO: references 10] and pictures can add to the fun and success of reading. These can be taught in the same way as teaching written words, with matching games initially, and combinations of words, symbols and pictures can be used together.

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Figure 8. Creating sentences with words and pictures

Working with symbols is different from working with words. Symbols do not necessarily map on to all of the words in a sentence. For this reason, symbols do not easily support the learning of sentence grammar. Symbols can support understanding of ideas represented in words (for example, question words), text, locations, events, time, routines and sequences. Symbols can be added to pages or next to words and sentences, as can other visual aids and objects to help children understand and remember ( [Figure 8]). As a general rule, introduction of picture symbols for children of school age is not necessary for learning to read written words, although use of pictures and symbols may make recorded work and activities more interesting and aid comprehension by illustrating concepts.

Computer software is available to support writing with symbols and words. [TODO: references 11],[TODO: 12] Whether or not symbols are used, continue to teach reading throughout school years as children with Down syndrome can ‘take off’ with reading at any age.[TODO: 13],[TODO: 14] It is always too early to say that children, young people or adults cannot learn to read and some are more motivated to learn to read as teenagers or young adults.

Supporting memory, learning routines, following instructions and learning to be independent

As a result of auditory processing and auditory memory difficulties, children with Down syndrome are likely to have some difficulties in processing spoken language in the classroom, and may not remember new instructions.

Being able to read written instruction or follow lists helps children to work more effectively in the classroom. They can keep to their task for longer periods of time, feel more confident that they have not forgotten anything and check where they are.

For events and activities that happen regularly, they can use a variety of timetables, for parts of days, whole days, school weeks and calendars of events at home. Timetables are likely to use text and pictures to help children remember orders and sequences, focus on their immediate task and reflect on the past and the future ( [Figure 9]).

! Timetable for 6 year old pupil in an infant school ! Timetable for 6 year old pupil in an infant school

Figure 9. Timetable for 6 year old pupil in an infant school

Whole words and sentences can be chosen to support the development of self-management and independence in the classroom and at home, for example, daily tasks at school, the order of activities at home before going to school and regular after school events ( [Figure 10]).

! Aid to remembering (pupil aged 6 years)

Figure 10. Aid to remembering (pupil aged 6 years)

Learning to read from phonic teaching

Children with Down syndrome who are relatively late to learn to read may be helped to begin to learn to read through mastering phonics. Earlier and accomplished readers with Down syndrome, for example, with word reading ages of seven and above, have usually developed phonic skills and are able to use them for reading, writing and spelling, even though they began reading by learning whole words. Those in good reading instruction programmes will have learned phonics in parallel with their whole word reading, and at some stage their visual and phonological skills become interwoven. The time and way in which this happens is very varied. Both children’s ability to speak clearly and their experience of speaking affect this process. Some older children with Down syndrome may have found it difficult to remember whole words in their younger years and, even with early phonic teaching, may not have been able to use their phonic knowledge for reading in their younger years. At a later stage, with greater phonological awareness, language skills and improved speech, they may be more able to use their phonic skills for learning to read. This learning profile is unusual for children with Down syndrome but some older children, who did not progress with whole word teaching methods at a younger age, have learned to read well with a combination of whole word learning and phonic teaching, for example, between the ages of 10 and 15 years. They are likely to have achieved this through greater experience of speaking as well as sustained teaching of phonic skills, as a part of a comprehensive literacy teaching programme at school. All children should continue to learn with simultaneous teaching of phonics as well as whole word reading throughout their education.

Encouraging reading for later or slower readers

Any progress in learning to read should be valued and celebrated. All children should receive reading instruction and sufficient opportunities to learn to read, with materials chosen and made to link with their language and interest levels. Teachers and parents should convey to children that learning to read, at any level of proficiency, is valuable, whatever their rate of reading skill development.

There are many ways of making reading or ‘visual language’ fun and of encouraging children to want to learn to read. Children with low self-esteem, avoidance behaviours or experience of failure, like all other children, require praise and positive interaction. It is important that all of their achievements and positive behaviours are celebrated frequently, in the classroom and at home. Avoidance behaviours may indicate a lack of positive learning experiences and children should be taught the skills for learning, with praise and other rewards. Children who have developed a resistance to reading may have experienced failure, or felt under too much pressure to read. These children can be helped by making reading games errorless as far as possible so that children can see how to succeed, with easy matching games, modelling of correct answers and by not asking them to read aloud unless they want to. The authors suggest that learning support assistants and teachers read to children and deliberately do not ask them to read until the children are relaxed and confident enough to want to try. When they begin to show interest, be careful not to ask them to do the task too often. Be keen to do the task yourself and offer the task to other children as well as to them, working in a group and taking turns. When reluctant readers have begun to want to participate in reading activities, do let them (or ask them) to finish games or activities while they are succeeding - but do not push them to practice for too long or to the point of failure. Do not leave children who lack confidence in their skills to fail - help them to complete the task successfully or change the task so that they can succeed on their own and praise them.

Building sentences and grammar

Why should children learn to read, build and write sentences?

By building and reading sentences children are building their language knowledge.

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###### Figure 11. ‘Home-made’ reading boards

How to teach children to build sentences

Building sentences from a learned reading vocabulary

After introducing some single whole words, words can be joined to make phrases and sentences of varying length. The length of sentence can be graded, based upon children’s understanding of language. For young readers, who may not yet comprehend two or three ideas linked together, two and three word phrases can be built and read with them, using single words that they can already read . A selection of sentences are included in the DSE Sentences Checklists and Record Sheets. DSra-04-01 Some children will be able to participate in this type of activity from the age of 2 to 3 years.

Children who understand two or more ideas and words linked together, but who are not able to say two or three words together, can also learn to read words in two and three word phrases to model and build expressive phrases in sign and speech ( [Figure 11]).

! Reading book, made in school, with clear, short sentences (for a pupil aged 5 years)

Figure 12. Reading book, made in school, with clear, short sentences (for a pupil aged 5 years)

Some computer software also has short phrases built into the software for very young children, for example, Speaking for Myself. [TODO: references 15]

The method of building short sentences using only learned vocabulary is limited as few two and three word phrases composed of words from an early reading vocabulary are grammatically correct. Examples of those that are correct include articles (‘’a boy’‘,’‘the rabbit’‘), possessives (’‘Mum’s shoes’‘,’‘my shoes’‘) and attributes (’‘red car’‘,’‘yellow duck’‘,’‘big ball’‘), or a combination of these for three word phrases (’‘the big ball’‘,’‘my red shoes’’).

Social and communicative language, early questions forms, negatives, prepositions and the present tense can be taught and practised by making books that contain short phrases, for example, ‘’What’s that?’’ (a book/a cat/a tree), ‘’Who’s that?’’ (Me/Mummy/Jamie), ‘’Where is it?’’ (in the box/on the chair/under the bed), ‘’I like (yoghurt/coke/crisps’‘),’‘I can (jump/run/sit/sleep),’‘Mum/Dad/Penny.. (can jump),’‘I want (the pens, the book, a drink)’’, books to teach plurals and negatives - there are many possibilities - and books can be illustrated with stick figures or photos - they do not need to be elaborate ( [Figure 12]). Children should then progress to reading simple, grammatically correct sentences of varying length, even though these will contain some words they cannot yet read independently.

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Figure 13. Matching sentences (child aged 5 years)

Computer software is particularly good for teaching language with reading, and can be better than picture materials as the moving action of verbs can be shown by moving pictures on the screen, so that people can be seen, for example, eating or dancing.

‘Talking book’ software [TODO: 16,17] is excellent for modelling language through sentences that relate to moving pictures. Children can hear and see words and sentences, click on words and sentences to hear them repeated, break down and build up sentences, as well as read sentences with the computer supporting them. Reading with tapes, and CDs that link with books, for example, THRASS Echo CDs and tapes,[TODO: 18] also support reading and speaking, although it is more difficult to control speech rate in ready prepared sentences than with the computer or in paired (supported) reading with another person. Sentences on the computer can be repeated as often as children wish, which is an advantage over a reading partner, who may not wish to read the same sentence consecutively by request.

Building sentences from the language used with and around children

Children who have understanding of two words or ideas together benefit from being introduced to reading grammatically correct sentences from an early age, much as they would hear them. It is helpful if two or three of the key words of the sentences read with children are learned as single words, although words in the sentence can also be remembered by reading the sentence with modelled, paired or visually supported reading methods ( [Figure 13]). However, for sentences learned in this way, return to single word reading to support teaching and check that individual words are being learned so that they can be read in other sentences. Learning a sentence as a whole, associated with the pictures, can be beneficial for learning language even before the words can be read elsewhere. Children can learn to match words to a sentence just as they did words to words and learn to read the words that make up that sentence. This is especially useful for learning the function words used in the sentence.

Early writing skills alongside reading

When children can read words in a sentence, they can also write the sentence, by ordering the words. To begin with, this will be by copying, for sentences they have been taught, or short sentences they have memorised from their reading books. They can also match whole or parts of a sentence to the whole sentence.

When children have learned a bank of words that includes function words and words that they will need to produce grammatically correct sentences, in writing or speaking, they can create their own sentences by joining word cards together. This is excellent for practising sentence structures for writing and speaking and this type of activity can begin early with short and simple sentences, alongside learning to read.

Choosing grammatical structures and teaching understanding

The best guide for developing the sentences for children to read and write that will help them to learn grammar, is to write in simple sentences about everyday life and in more complex sentences for older or more language able children.

! Understanding sentences ! Understanding sentences

Figure 14. Understanding sentences

Individual books about children and their life at home and at school are good starting points for children and young people. Who are their family members? What do people do? What happens to them during the day? Use holiday and school photographs and write simple grammatical sentences to accompany these everyday activities and ideas. Do not oversimplify the sentences - do use the grammatically correct forms that you would use when speaking to any child. This will introduce parts of grammar the young child needs to learn, quite naturally, for example, tense words, negatives, pronouns, question and answer forms. When children can speak or sign a little, you will know some of what it is they want to tell you about an event, picture or story, and you can write an appropriate, expanded, grammatically correct short sentence to go with the picture.

For example:

As children’s language knowledge and speech develops, and their reading and writing skills increase, these sentences will be developed further with more complex forms, such as conjunctions (‘’and’‘,’‘because’‘,’‘but’‘), question forms and answers (’‘Why is the girl laughing?… Because…’’), embedded sentences and mixed sentences ( [Figure 14]). Many aspects of grammar may be represented in even a few sentences in a short text. Further examples of differentiated literacy activities can be found in Including All. [TODO: references 6]

! Making sentences with word cards (pupil aged 7 years)

Figure 15. Making sentences with word cards (pupil aged 7 years)

Sentences for communication

All the time that everyday language is written down, read back, applied to real situations, classroom work and events, and children are encouraged to create their own sentences, language comprehension is being taught and learned ( [Figure 15]).

Sentences written in the first person, about the child’s frequent, real life events have the added advantage of modelling phrases and sentences that the child wants to use to communicate with others. Reading communicative phrases can be particularly useful for children who can read but lack social confidence or communication skills, for example ‘’What’s your name?’’ ‘’My name is (first and second names), or’‘Where do you live?’‘,’‘I live at ….’’.

Schools and families can work together to write sentences for what has happened at the weekend or at school and practice them in a conversation diary - that is, writing down the sentences the child would use to tell what has happened.

! Sentences made with word cards and copied into a book (pupil aged 8 years)

Figure 16. Sentences made with word cards and copied into a book (pupil aged 8 years)

A written sentence can help to rehearse information for a situation that may otherwise be stressful, for example, answering the register, giving messages around school, answering the telephone or asking for goods from a shop.

At school, sentences can be built during class activities shared with the whole class. This is one of the most important tasks for differentiating the curriculum for pupils. The language used may need some shortening and simplification, particularly if the child is going to write the sentence as well as read it - by matching word cards, tracing over, copywriting underneath or copying onto a separate piece of paper ( [Figure 16]).

The authors recommend that sentences be built by using the language spoken to children, language for the ideas that the child wants to express, the language of the classroom, social and curricular, and the language that relates to the child’s interests, cultural and family life. This will help to develop useful language skills and vocabulary that will be heard and practised often around and by children. It also makes the task of choosing sentences easier and within the ability of everyone working with and supporting the child ( [Figure 17]).

Grammar checklists

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Figure 17. Creating a sentence with word cards (pupil aged 7 years)

Grammar learning checklists and guides can be used to check that important aspects of language learning are being taught and learned. Guidance for this is usually provided by each child’s speech and language therapist. For example, targeting the teaching of the pronouns ‘’he’‘,’‘she’‘,’‘his’‘,’‘her’‘, past and future tense verbs, more advanced prepositions (e.g.,’‘above’‘,’‘below’’), question and answer forms and comparatives.

The people who are spending time talking, playing and interacting with children every day (parents and teachers) are in a far better position to teach language and grammar than the child’s speech and language therapist. The authors wish to reassure parents and teachers that it is quite difficult to go wrong when creating sentences for children to build language through reading, with simple, grammatically correct sentences that are used in everyday language.

Teaching understanding of words and sentences

New vocabulary is introduced naturally in conversation, literacy teaching and in project work across the curriculum, at home and in the classroom.

Children will be introduced to new grammar and vocabulary through reading books, and similarly these will teach and model speech and language skills.

Pictures help to teach language comprehension, and can be combined with sentences to ensure that understanding is illustrated or emphasised.

To help children to demonstrate their understanding, especially before they are able to speak or write well enough to convey their understanding, activities can be created or worksheets used in a variety of ways.

Some of these are listed in the adjacent box. These methods can be used to monitor progress and to help children participate in assessment and test activities.

Many published reading and writing schemes have accompanying work books that teach and test comprehension at the sentence and text levels.

Teaching phonics

Children should learn about phonics from an early age, beginning with learning about letters, their names, and the sounds they make.

! ! Choosing sounds with magnetic letters

Figure 18. Choosing sounds with magnetic letters

Children with Down syndrome will bring different degrees of phonological awareness (the ability to hear the sounds that make up words) to the reading task. They will have differing abilities to produce or say sounds even when they can perceive them, different abilities to recognise sounds in words, even when they know them as isolated sounds, and different abilities to say single words, words of different length and complexity, and sentences. Individual starting points and rates of progress will vary, as will the stage at which the learner will begin to use phonic skills for reading and writing and the extent to which their skills will develop. There is no accepted pattern in the way that children with Down syndrome will hear, perceive, identify, recall or produce sounds, although learning to read, write and spell, practising speaking and developing clear speech will all affect this system of learning.

Skilled readers with Down syndrome, who began early (in preschool years) and have continued to develop literacy skills with their peers, may be very good at reading using their phoneme and grapheme knowledge. It is not unusual for such readers to be able to read and pronounce, and sometimes spell, words that are considered to be years ahead of their chronological age, for example, word reading similar to typically developing 16 year olds when they are 10 or 11.

There is an accepted order for teaching phonics that is used in most phonic teaching schemes. Our advice is to teach phonics from the typical age - many preschool children with Down syndrome know letter sounds and names, even if they cannot clearly say all of them. Learning to finger spell letters of the alphabet will help children to learn letter names and sounds. For most children a phonic teaching system used for teaching typically developing children in school is usually adequate. Later starters may need more age appropriate materials than the typical infant resources.

Children will learn how to hear and see the letters in words, beginning with short phonically regular words of two and three letters. They will practice seeing and hearing where the sounds are in the positions of the word, written and spoken. Working with rhyming sets of words helps to simplify the task.

! Tracing over and saying blends (pupil aged 9 years)

Figure 19. Tracing over and saying blends (pupil aged 9 years)

Children with Down syndrome will be enabled to participate in this type of work by showing their choices manually, rather than verbally. They will also be helped by having a smaller selection of choices, even two, to choose between. Letter cards, letters that can be handled, or pointing to select letters from a short list, will all make this easier for them ( [Figure 18]).

Children who develop handwriting skills early may be able to write letters as they participate in phonic teaching games and activities. However, most young children in the infant age range (4-7 years) will need to use letters on card, made of sponge or plastic, letter magnets, and suitable computer software until they have learned to write the letters of the alphabet. Children with Down syndrome can be explicitly taught to read, write and say sounds together to develop their speech production alongside reading and writing skills ( [Figure 19], [Figure 20] and [Figure 21]).

! Pictures, words and sounds (pupil aged 6 years)

Figure 20. Pictures, words and sounds (pupil aged 6 years)

Many infant programmes or activities are suitable for teaching these skills - they are skills that all children learn in school. There are also junior and secondary programmes designed for older children with reading difficulties that present typical infant targets in more age appropriate ways.

Some programmes suit children of any age, although young children with Down syndrome may not understand some of the vocabulary used in all age programmes, and the suitability of the vocabulary content should be checked. Children with Down syndrome are likely to be learning phonic skills more slowly than the majority of pupils, but there are many other children in schools that have difficulties in this area of learning and development. The same resources are likely to suit all of these children, for example, children with dyslexia, Down syndrome, hearing impairments, language impairments, developmental delay and children learning English as a second language.

!

Figure 21. A poem spoken and clapped for rhythm and rhyme (pupil aged 7 years)

Children with Down syndrome vary greatly in the development of their phonic skills. They need the same variety of teaching methods for learning to read and write as other children, with some additional methods to compensate for language, memory and handwriting developmental delays.

They do not need phonic skills to make progress with learning to read, as they will learn using their good visual memories, but they benefit from learning phonics to build their speech, language, reading, writing and spelling skills. Many children and young people with Down syndrome will be able to use phonic skills to read novel words and to write and spell, and some will accelerate in their reading and writing development once they have mastered these skills. All children should continue to learn phonics throughout their education.

Teaching spelling

Functional spelling

Children of all ages need to learn to spell the words they need to write. This includes their first and second names, family names, friends names, words that help them to write cards or address presents, for example, ‘’to’‘,’‘love’‘,’‘from’‘,’‘Dear’’ (e.g. [Figure 22]).

As pupils get older they will need to sign their names, for writing their names on lists or for opening a bank or savings account or other types of permission. Learning to spell and write their address and telephone number as well as the name of their school, so they can name and label their own books and belongings, will also promote their independence. Representing oneself, by use of the written word, is powerful for independence and self-esteem, and pupils will appreciate the value of doing this for themselves instead of someone else doing it for them. Family, social and functional spellings are important for children and they should learn these as part of their spelling programmes.

! Family names wordsearch (pupil aged 6 years)

Figure 22. Family names wordsearch (pupil aged 6 years)

As children become more skilled at spelling, they are able to develop their writing skills, communicate and record their thoughts more easily.

Methods

The same methods for teaching spelling to all children can be used for teaching children with Down syndrome. Spelling and handwriting can be taught at the same time, although the majority of children have spelling skills in advance of their ability to write them down due the slow development of their fine motor and handwriting skills.

The need to spell when writing focuses attention on the letters in words and the use of alphabetic knowledge so it can be counter-productive to use flashcard words for sentence building for too long.

Children with Down syndrome may be later in developing the ability to spell using phonic skills than other children with similar reading skills, as this requires good auditory discrimination.

Children need encouragement and practice to begin to try to spell familiar words without a visual prompt and so teaching can be graded, starting with short rhyming words.

The method of ‘look, learn, cover, write and check’ can be used with children of all ages. The child literally follows these procedures, and aids can be made to make this easier or more fun - such as a word written in a larger size and a personalised cover for the child to use.

! Flipchart to teach spelling
!
!

Figure 23. Flipchart to teach spelling

Additional memory games can help to develop the rehearsal skills necessary to memorise the order of the letters. For example, look at, say and write the first letter, then look at, say and write the first and second letter consecutively, then look at, say and write the first, second and third letters consecutively, etc., until the whole word has been memorised. This makes the process of learning in ‘look, learn, cover, write, check’ more explicit and builds up words letter by letter ( [Figure 23]). Another method could be to copy out the word 3 times, by hand or with letters or on the computer first, and then try ‘look, learn, cover, write, check’ methods.

Multi-sensory methods help children to remember the order of letters, for example, tracing over the letters in the word, verbally rehearsing them simultaneously, or writing the letters on a table with a finger, reading and saying each letter aloud in sequence.

Mnemonics (for example, pictures, characters or attributes that can be associated with a word) may help children to remember the way the letters are arranged within words. Children can also learn to break the word up into ‘chunks’ or try to visualise the word by taking a ‘photo’ of the word in their mind. This is likely to be particularly useful for words that look similar or belong to word families ( [Figure 24]).

As children’s reading improves, they will begin to associate sounds with letter strings and patterns - so draw their attention to strings, e.g., ‘’ing’‘,’‘tion’’ patterns and sounds as they are reading.

If children misspell a word consistently, return to word matching and help them to discriminate the word for the correct version through matching tasks.

Finger spelling may help some children remember letters and letter patterns and learning to finger spell can be an enjoyable game for a group of children to learn together.

! Spellings (pupil aged 8 years)

Figure 24. Spellings (pupil aged 8 years)

There are many structured spelling schemes available and preferred by individual schools and all of these are likely to be suitable, as long as children are motivated and provided with opportunities for regular practice. Do include children in whole school teaching schemes for spelling, especially those that combine visual and auditory skills and are multi-sensory and multimedia. [e.g. [TODO: references 18]

Children should be included in class spelling tests, even if they have different words to learn. If they cannot write letters by hand, use magnetic or other types of letters and a spelling board.

More advanced spellers in junior school can practice creating sentences with their new spellings, so that they understand how to use new words in their writing and understand the meaning of new vocabulary ( [Figure 25]).

Resources

Plastic, magnetic or sponge letters and spelling boards can be used to help to learn spellings until the child can write letters, or as an extra way to practice spelling.

! Using a new spelling in a sentence (pupil aged 10 years)

Figure 25. Using a new spelling in a sentence (pupil aged 10 years)

Practice is fundamental to learning: word lists sent home for practice at reading, writing and spelling are a great help for the child.

Create and use workbooks, including word banks and picture dictionaries, and make books or lists of children’s own spelling vocabulary.

Use of the computer can develop spelling skills, working on visual strengths. Infant and primary computer resources for teaching spelling to all children are suitable for primary aged children with Down syndrome who are learning to spell.

Beyond words and sentences: reading and writing with understanding

Reading with comprehension and putting thoughts onto paper are addressed together in this section. Children with Down syndrome, like many other children, will usually need help with both tasks.

As the reading skills of children with Down syndrome develop, they may be able to accurately read text that they do not understand. They need sensitive support to help them to understand what they are reading about and to teach them comprehension skills.

When they are asked to write about texts or record other information, including their thoughts ( [Figure 26]) or their feelings, they may need strategies or tools to help them to order their knowledge and convey their thoughts onto paper.

! Thoughts about spring (pupil aged 9 years)

Figure 26. Thoughts about spring (pupil aged 9 years)

The strategies and tools described below can be used for developing both reading comprehension and writing skills.

One of the best ways to encourage understanding is to ask children to write about what they have read, therefore the main techniques are described below for comprehension in both reading and writing. Sentence level comprehension and writing is described earlier in this module.

Strategies for developing skills

Comprehension and production of text can be affected by children’s comprehension of vocabulary, grammar, life experience and general knowledge, the difficulty of the reading task, the amount of information presented to them in the text and their ability to remember what they have read.

Many texts assume that the reader will draw on their knowledge and can use inference to understand implied meanings in stories. [TODO: references 19]

Vocabulary knowledge

New vocabulary or vocabulary that children may have some idea about can be explained to children in words that they understand, using written language ( [Figure 27]). For example, for learning the word ‘’vet’’ it may be helpful to explain ‘’a vet is a doctor for animals’’.

! Part of a series of literacy activities for the story of ‘The Town and Country Mouse’ (pupil aged 6 years) ! Part of a series of literacy activities for the story of ‘The Town and Country Mouse’ (pupil aged 6 years)

Figure 27. Part of a series of literacy activities for the story of ‘The Town and Country Mouse’ (pupil aged 6 years)

Grammar comprehension

The complexity of the grammar used in sentences may be difficult for children to understand. They may need someone to explain what the sentence means, and to rewrite complex sentences into several simpler sentences. They may need extra sentences inserted into the text to make clear links between sentences and to reduce the need for inference.

Content and interest

Sometimes when children show little interest in what they are reading about it is because the ideas expressed in the text are too far removed from their knowledge, life experience and interests at school and home. If this is suspected to be the case, teachers and parents can try to link the content of text to children’s life experience, people and places the children know, or use more illustrations and dramatic effects ( [Figure 28] and [Figure 29]) to help focus their interest and develop understanding.

! Using illustrations to make literacy work more interesting ! Using illustrations to make literacy work more interesting

Figure 28. Using illustrations to make literacy work more interesting

Alternatively, parents and teachers may choose reading materials that children are already interested in, which enable them to more easily relate the content to their existing knowledge. More challenging reading material can be introduced periodically to encourage children to widen their interests and to allow for their interests to change with increasing maturity and changing motivation.

! Pictures combined with text

Figure 29. Pictures combined with text

Some children with Down syndrome are motivated to read, understand and learn from the same texts as their peers, regardless of the initial level of difficulty. The effects of social and academic inclusion on learning and motivation should always be considered first and children should not be excluded from accessing literature based on assumptions about ability. Children sharing texts with their peers in lessons will mostly need help in the form of differentiation, encouragement and discussion to develop their understanding of difficult texts. In contrast, children who prefer to work independently without individual support or discussion in lessons are likely to need even more changes made through differentiation to enable them to access the English curriculum and share texts.

Level of reading and speaking difficulty

If sentences are difficult for children to read and say, they may put all their effort into reading aloud and focus less on understanding what they have read. For texts at a challenging word reading level the texts should be easier to understand to allow for this. Many children are helped by being read the text by a support worker, so that they can also follow the text visually before or after they read it, or both. Listening to or reading the text a second or third time gives them more opportunities to understand and think about the information conveyed.

Remembering and building comprehension for reading and writing

Remembering what has been read, relating new information to that on previous pages and linking this with existing knowledge, are functions of memory, in particular working memory. Information stored in more permanent long term memory is retrieved, and used or combined with new incoming information in working memory to facilitate understanding. Therefore understanding what has been read and planning what is going to be written are both heavily dependent upon this memory function. Children with Down syndrome who are progressing well in all other aspects of their development are usually more delayed in the development of their working memory system. Working memory difficulties are common in the classroom, affecting many other slow learners.

! Doodles and words to help remembering and understanding

Figure 30. Doodles and words to help remembering and understanding

TTo compensate for this processing weakness children with Down syndrome need help to extract and build their understanding as they read, at the word, sentence and text levels. As well as talking about what has been read and prompting children to remember verbally, children can be encouraged to choose ‘key’ words or short sentences, for parents and teachers to write down for them. After building their understanding in this way, they can then be asked to write about what they have read, or to answer specific questions.

With single word records and ‘doodle pictures’

When recording ideas and stories in single written words, understanding will involve at least two lists, one for the ‘people’ and one for the events or ‘things that happen’. If places are needed then these will make a third list. As children become skilled at this they will learn to choose and write key notes themselves. When reviewing or rehearsing using these lists, children can draw lines between key words to build up a plan or map. Extra doodles, pictograms or symbols that illustrate or convey meaning will help them to remember even more ( [Figure 30]).

! Wizard of Oz ‘Mind Map’

Figure 31. Wizard of Oz ‘Mind Map’

! Wizard of Oz flowchart

Figure 32. Wizard of Oz flowchart

Two column lists will help children to remember, although even more interesting and useful plans or maps can be built using ‘concept’, ‘mind’ or ‘model mapping’ techniques.

As well as placement of words, different coloured pens can be used for the different types of information being recorded.

These and other ways of building understanding and showing links between information visually can be used to help children remember, understand and learn, for both comprehension and writing skills.

Children will need to learn how to follow one type of plan, web or map initially so that they can use it for helping to organise, remember and manipulate information across the curriculum ( [Figure 31] and [Figure 32]). [TODO: references 20] [TODO: references 21]

With sentences

Teachers and parents can write sentences on strips of paper or card and ask children to arrange the sentences to match parts or the whole of stories and texts.

Children can be encouraged to re-read the original text to find the information they need to order the sentences and ideas they represent correctly.

Storyboards ( [Figure 33]) and other forms of writing frames can be adapted for use with words and sentences. Storyboards have a series of boxes for recording illustrations or drawing pictures.

Time order (what happens ‘’first, in the middle and at the end’‘, or’‘first, next, next, and in the end?’’) or content type (names and descriptions, places, events), or a combination of both approaches can be used.

!

Figure 33. Macbeth storyboard (pupil aged 11 years)

Many published work sheets linked with text books (across the curriculum) are writing frames, as are specifically created worksheets ( [Figure 34] and [Figure 35]).

The techniques described in this section are taught to children receiving literacy instruction in schools, but the need to practice remembering and understanding what you read to build comprehension and develop knowledge is especially important for all children with working memory and language delays.

!

Figure 34. Example of structured support to aid writing (pupil aged 7 years)

! Example of structured support to aid writing (pupil aged 7 years)

Figure 35. Example of structured support to aid writing (pupil aged 7 years)

Assessing comprehension

Assessing and monitoring reading comprehension skills are made easier for teachers and parents by developing use of the tools described above, which help children structure the information that they read and write about. Children are more likely to be able to talk about what they have understood using a plan to prompt them, and with practice can move towards more independent and spontaneous description, discussion and question asking and answering.

Without these types of help and ways of thinking taught to them, children are less likely to be able to answer questions, convey their understanding verbally in discussion or present their understanding through their writing than children without language or working memory delays. Their difficulties can and often do lead to their comprehension being underestimated, and with some thoughtful help and teaching, they can do much better. Maps, webs and visual plans help children to demonstrate their understanding in ways that are not necessarily sequential, and do not require verbal or writing skills.

With purely verbal questioning by a teacher or parent, children may forget questions before they are able to answer them so written questions will support them in this process. They can also be asked to point or act upon what they have read, to manipulate pieces of paper, words and pictures, order sentences prepared on card or paper, write answers, select words by ringing them, complete cloze procedures or talk into a tape recorder to demonstrate and develop their understanding.

Activities for text level work
  • rewrite the story in simpler text that the child can understand
  • combine reading of the simplified story with comprehension questions and answers
  • provide multiple choice type written answers, until the child learns to answer the question without the visual cue
  • discuss and explain the links between sentences
  • ask questions that the child can answer easily to convey understanding
  • teach the child to read short passages twice before asking them a question, or ask them to read the passage again after the question has been asked
  • record the children’s answers or explanation on tape and then go back through with them to discuss further
  • write the question down for them to see and remember while they look for the answer in the text
  • write down key words
  • create a flowchart, story board, word web, concept map or some or all of these to explore meaning and teach organisation of information

! Two picture sequences (pupil aged 6 years

Figure 36. Two picture sequences (pupil aged 6 years)

Sequencing pictures and sentences to teach time and event order

Children are likely to practice sequencing pictures at infant school (ages 4 to 7 years) beginning with two pictures (and related sentences) and building up to 4, 6 or 8 picture sequences in junior and secondary schools.

Where pictures clearly represent the actions of the story or text, these activities can help to develop and demonstrate comprehension and planning beyond the single sentence level. They can also become writing activities in themselves or be used to support writing ( [Figure 36] and [Figure 37]).

! Sequencing pictures and sentences for making a sandwich (pupil aged 6 years)

Figure 37. Sequencing pictures and sentences for making a sandwich (pupil aged 6 years)

There is a great deal of published material to support language and writing development using series of pictures, including black and white photocopiable resources and coloured story cards. e.g. [TODO: references 22]. Published resources may not relate easily to topics being followed at school, although some do, and pictures and materials that enable children to be included in reading and writing activities with their class will be the best [Figure 38]

! Writing a story supported with a sequence of pictures (pupil aged 8 years)

! Writing a story supported with a sequence of pictures (pupil aged 8 years)

! Writing a story supported with a sequence of pictures (pupil aged 8 years)

! Writing a story supported with a sequence of pictures (pupil aged 8 years)

Figure 38. Writing a story supported with a sequence of pictures (pupil aged 8 years)

Toys and objects as props as well as pictures and books

Some schools use bags with objects to dramatise the stories so that children can re-enact sequences and develop narratives. This type of activity can support children’s use of spoken and signed language, and can help them to rehearse information, which in turn helps them to write. Objects and miniature objects add interest to learning and have the added benefit of teaching play and communication skills to children who are particularly delayed in this area of their development.

Writing development

It is usually easier for children with Down syndrome to write about familiar topics or well known stories and information than to create new stories or poetry. Like most children, they are likely to begin by writing known or well rehearsed information (this need not all be factual, but could be favourite songs, story books, nursery rhymes or fairy tales (as in [Figure 39]) and lead into more creative styles of writing, or writing based on new information they are learning about from their school curriculum.

! Writing based on a ‘fairy tale’

Figure 39. Writing based on a ‘fairy tale’

Writing about everyday sequences

! Reading about daily routines (pupil aged 6 years)

Figure 40. Reading about daily routines (pupil aged 6 years)

Writing about sequences that relate to daily life will help to teach these sequences, as children can read them and practice them, as well as act them. This two-way process can be used to enhance daily living skills and improve behaviour as well as teach language and writing skills. Families and schools can begin with personal books of everyday sequences, for example, getting up or routines at school ( [Figure 40]). Schools and families can work together to write sentences for what has happened at the weekend, or at school, and practise them.

Writing about special events

Diaries or daily records that describe life events are popular with children of all ages. Taking pictures of these events and writing sentences that describe them to create personal books is one of the best ways of developing writing skills and increasing motivation for independent writing. Also, many children will be more motivated to practice handwriting by tracing over words and sentences in such a book than by practising with handwriting sheets that have little or no content ( [Figure 41] and [Figure 42]). Pictures that can be developed or printed quickly are the best, and digital cameras are likely to be used in many schools and some homes. Instant cameras can be just as effective for those without access to digital technology. This type of record is helpful for developing memory skills through rehearsal, for talking, reading and writing and supporting conversation. These activities are particularly recommended for young children and children of all ages through summer breaks and holidays.

! Writing about a special event (pupil aged 6 years)

Figure 41. Writing about a special event (pupil aged 6 years)

!

Figure 42. Writing about a special event (pupil aged 11 years)

Writing for conversation

Daily living and special event dairies can be developed into conversation diaries, that children can use to share with others, including peers and ‘buddies’, as well as adults at school. These require that text is written in the first person - for example ‘’I went fishing with Dad on Saturday…’’.

Writing social stories

Social stories are records with text and pictures that can enable children to rehearse social skills or behaviour they are trying to learn for certain situations in advance of entering those situations. Stories can focus on positive or desired behaviours, so children, parents and teachers can combine learning writing skills with teaching social skills, using language written in the future tense. [TODO: references 23]

Developing writing skills further

When children can write and spell sufficiently (or dictate to a scribe) a series of sentences, many continue to need a guide or frame to help them to progress to producing longer pieces of writing. For example, some children learning to extend their writing skills may begin to write about the topic required and later introduce characters from their family, what they did at the weekend or add parts of their favourite stories. Writing guides that are frequently referred to and shared planning with a support assistant to produce the guide in advance, will teach children how to extend their writing skills and keep to their original ideas.

To develop writing skills in this way often requires a high level of support, to encourage children to say what they want to say or convey, to help them record this - on tape, or in sentences or notes written by the support worker, or on the computer, then transferred onto a writing guide for them to follow.

Some pupils will need continuous support for each stage of writing, some will need help to plan and record, but will then be able to write ( [Figure 43]) and some pupils with Down syndrome in primary schools are able to write independently ( [Figure 44]).

! Writing a letter (pupil aged 9 years)

Figure 43. Writing a letter (pupil aged 9 years)

! Independent writing using a computer and by hand (pupil aged 11 years)

Figure 44. Independent writing using a computer and by hand (pupil aged 11 years)

Conclusions

Teaching children with Down syndrome to read and write requires enthusiasm and creativity, but the methods are those that will benefit many other children in all school classrooms.

A range of resources are available with practical ideas to cover all the aspects of reading and writing discussed, some specifically written for working with children with Down syndrome [TODO: references 24],[TODO: 25] and others written for teaching literacy to all children with special educational needs. [TODO: 26],[TODO: 27] There is also a wide range of materials available for teaching reading to children for whom English is not their first language. Much of this is suitable for children with Down syndrome.

The benefits of being taught to read and fully included in literacy instruction are extensive, but in particular, the spoken language abilities of children with Down syndrome will benefit.

All children with Down syndrome should be included in infant school reading instruction (aged 4 to 7 years) and be provided with reading books and other materials for use in the classroom and at home. They will also benefit from some additional materials to help them to learn, such as personal word cards, adapted and home-made books.

Children aged 7 to 11 years should continue to be included in literacy teaching activities, differentiated and supported as necessary to help them learn. [TODO: references 28] Skilled readers may need additional activities to develop their reading comprehension and writing skills. Many children will continue to benefit from structured teaching programmes - these may be individually taught or shared with other pupils who have been slower to learn to read and write than the majority of their peers in school.

Teachers and learning support assistants who focus on language teaching through their teaching and learning activities and in the classroom environment, and who use literacy to support and develop working memory and learning across the curriculum, will be very effective in promoting the development of children with Down syndrome.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the children, parents, learning support assistants, teachers and schools they have worked with in schools across the UK, whose talents have contributed towards this module.

Terminology

The term ‘learning difficulty’ is used throughout this module as it is the term currently in common use in the United Kingdom. The terms ‘mental retardation’, ‘intellectual impairment’ and ‘developmental disability’ are equivalent terms, used in other parts of the world.

References

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  14. Farrell, M. (1996). Continuing literacy development. In Stratford, B. and Gunn, P. (Eds.), *New **Approaches to Down Syndrome*. (pp. 280-299). London: Cassell.
  15. Black, B. Speaking for Myself. (CD-ROM) Penryn, UK: Topologika Software.
  16. Oxford University Press. Oxford Reading Tree Talking Stories. (CD-ROM) Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press / Sherston Software.
  17. Granada Learning. Wellington Square. (CD-ROM) Manchester, UK: Granada Learning.
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  20. Harris, I., Caviglioli, O. (2000) Mapwise. Stafford, UK: Netword Educational Press. http://www.networkcontinuum.co.uk/MapW.html
  21. Lewis, M., and Wray, D. Writing Frames. Exeter, UK:Exeter Literacy Project.
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  23. Gray, C. (1994) The New Social Story Book. Arlington:Future Horizons.
  24. Tien, B., Armour, H., Clelland, C.E.K., Lehn, M., Shyry, C., and Woodward, D. (1999). *Effective **Teaching Strategies for Successful Inclusion: A Focus on Down Syndrome*. Calgary, AB: The PREP Program.
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Resources

Many of the resources referenced in this publication are available via Down Syndrome Education International’s specialist mail-order service. For further information please contact us.

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